Quantifying Differences in Navigational Behavior Between Novice and Experienced Officers in a High-Fidelity Ship-Handling Simulator
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.35800/jip.v14i2.68464Keywords:
high-fidelity ship-handling simulator, navigational behavior, novice officers, experienced officers, ship handling, maritime education and trainingAbstract
This study aimed to quantify differences in navigational behavior between novice and experienced officers during ship-handling simulator exercises. A quantitative descriptive approach was applied using empirical data obtained from high-fidelity simulator trials conducted at the Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology. Navigational behavior was assessed based on three elemental techniques: look-out, positioning, and maneuvering. The results showed that experienced officers performed more frequent and consistent cross-instrument verification using radar/ARPA, bearing compass, and binoculars. They also demonstrated stronger integration between positioning and maneuvering tasks, which resulted in smoother vessel trajectories and smaller lateral deviations from the planned route. In contrast, novice officers tended to perform look-out, positioning, and maneuvering as isolated tasks, with lower verification frequency and more reactive steering responses during dynamic traffic encounters. These findings indicate that navigational expertise is reflected not only in technical knowledge, but also in structured behavioral routines, continuous information verification, and integrated task execution. The study provides empirical support for developing behavior-based simulator assessment and adaptive training systems in maritime education.
Keywords: high-fidelity ship-handling simulator; navigational behavior; novice officers; experienced officers; ship handling; maritime education and training
Abstrak. Penelitian ini bertujuan menguantifikasi perbedaan perilaku navigasi antara perwira pemula dan perwira berpengalaman pada skenario simulator olah gerak kapal fidelitas tinggi. Penelitian menggunakan pendekatan deskriptif kuantitatif berdasarkan data empiris eksperimen simulator yang dilaksanakan di Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology (TUMSAT). Indikator perilaku dikelompokkan ke dalam tiga teknik dasar navigasi, yaitu look-out, penentuan posisi, dan manuver. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa perwira berpengalaman memiliki frekuensi dan konsistensi verifikasi informasi yang lebih tinggi melalui radar/ARPA, kompas baringan, dan binokular. Kelompok ini juga memperlihatkan integrasi yang lebih kuat antara pemeriksaan posisi dan tindakan manuver, sehingga lintasan kapal lebih stabil dan deviasi lateral terhadap rencana pelayaran lebih kecil. Sebaliknya, perwira pemula cenderung menjalankan tugas navigasi secara terpisah, reaktif, dan tidak konsisten, khususnya pada kondisi lalu lintas dinamis. Temuan ini menegaskan bahwa keselamatan navigasi tidak hanya ditentukan oleh ketersediaan teknologi anjungan, tetapi juga oleh kemampuan operator dalam memverifikasi dan mengintegrasikan informasi secara berkelanjutan. Hasil penelitian ini dapat menjadi dasar pengembangan asesmen simulator yang lebih objektif, adaptif, dan berorientasi pada faktor manusia.
Kata kunci: simulator olah gerak kapal; perilaku navigasi; perwira pemula; perwira berpengalaman; look-out; faktor manusia
References
Chauvin, C., Lardjane, S., Morel, G., Clostermann, J. P., & Langard, B. (2013). Human and organisational factors in maritime accidents: Analysis of collisions at sea using the HFACS. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 59, 26-37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2013.05.006
Endsley, M. R. (1995). Toward a theory of situation awareness in dynamic systems. Human Factors, 37(1), 32-64. https://doi.org/10.1518/001872095779049543
Ghosh, S., Bowles, M., Ranmuthugala, D., & Brooks, B. (2014). Reviewing seafarer assessment methods to determine the need for authentic assessment. Australian Journal of Maritime & Ocean Affairs, 6(1), 49-63. https://doi.org/10.1080/18366503.2014.888133
International Maritime Organization. (1972). Convention on the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, 1972 (COLREGs), as amended. London: International Maritime Organization.
International Maritime Organization. (2011). STCW: International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers, including 2010 Manila Amendments. London: International Maritime Organization.
Karahalil, M., Lützhöft, M., & Scanlan, J. (2023). Formative assessment in maritime simulator-based higher education. WMU Journal of Maritime Affairs, 22(2), 181-207. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13437-023-00313-6
Karahalil, M., Lützhöft, M., Wahl, A. M., & Scanlan, J. (2024). Factors impacting curricula in maritime simulator-based education. WMU Journal of Maritime Affairs. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13437-024-00351-8
Kim, T.-e., Sharma, A., Bustgaard, M., Gyldensten, W. C., Nymoen, O. K., Tusher, H. M., & Nazir, S. (2021). The continuum of simulator-based maritime training and education. WMU Journal of Maritime Affairs, 20(2), 135-150. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13437-021-00242-2
Kobayashi, H. (2005). Use of simulators in assessment, learning and teaching of mariners. WMU Journal of Maritime Affairs, 4, 57-75. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03195064
Müller-Plath, G., Lehleitner, J., Maier, J., Silva-Löbling, J., Zhang, H., Zhang, X., & Zhou, S. (2023). How does maritime situation awareness depend on navigation automation and mental workload? A sea simulator experiment. TransNav, 17(4), 963-969. https://doi.org/10.12716/1001.17.04.23
Pazouki, K., Forbes, N., Norman, R. A., & Woodward, M. D. (2018). Investigation on the impact of human-automation interaction in maritime operations. Ocean Engineering, 153, 297-304. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2018.01.103
Sellberg, C. (2017). Simulators in bridge operations training and assessment: A systematic review and qualitative synthesis. WMU Journal of Maritime Affairs, 16, 247-263. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13437-016-0114-8
Tusher, H. M., Nazir, S., Ghosh, S., & Rusli, R. (2023). Seeking the best practices of assessment in maritime simulator training. TransNav, the International Journal on Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transportation, 17(1), 105-114. https://doi.org/10.12716/1001.17.01.10
Wiig, A. C., Sellberg, C., & Solberg, M. (2023). Reviewing simulator-based training and assessment in maritime education: A topic modelling approach for tracing conceptual developments. WMU Journal of Maritime Affairs, 22(2), 143-164. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13437-023-00307-4
de Abreu, D. T. M. P., Ferreira, P., Silva, J., & Coelho, H. (2023). On the use of simulators to gather human performance data for human reliability analysis. In Proceedings of the 33rd European Safety and Reliability Conference (ESREL 2023) (pp. 2280–2287).
Mahadevan, H. S., Kumar, A., Grundmann, R., & Schwarze, A. (2025). Assessment of situational awareness in relation to advanced navigation systems using ship handling simulators. Engineering Proceedings, 88(1), 36. https://doi.org/10.3390/engproc2025088036
Nizar, A. M., Miwa, T., & Uchida, M. (2024). Simulator-based human reliability analysis using Bayesian network: A case study on situation awareness in engine resources management. TransNav: International Journal on Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transportation, 18(3), 593–599. https://doi.org/10.12716/1001.18.03.13
Sriantini, A., & Supangat. (2026). Enhancing seafarers’ self-awareness and emergency decisions through bridge simulator training. Maritime Park: Journal of Maritime Technology and Society, 5(1), 170–177.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Yeddy Teddy Theodorus Ombuh, Hiroaki Kobayashi, Semuel Palembangan, Iskandar Palembangan, Yustiani Frastika, Frisca Mareyta Pongoh
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
COPYRIGHT
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
Authors hold their copyright and grant this journal the privilege of first publication, with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that permits others to impart the work with an acknowledgment of the work's origin and initial publication by this journal.
Authors can enter into separate or additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (for example, post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgment of its underlying publication in this journal.
Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (for example, in institutional repositories or on their website) as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of the published work (See The Effect of Open Access).
