Behavioral responses of the endemic maleo (Macrocephalon maleo) in a non-typical upland forest habitat

Abstract

Behavioral ecology provides a critical framework for understanding how wild birds adjust their activity patterns in response to environmental variability and anthropogenic disturbance. The Maleo (Macrocephalon maleo), an endemic bird of Sulawesi, is ecologically specialized for reproduction in hot, sandy coastal habitats; however, individuals are occasionally reported in upland forest environments that differ markedly from their typical ecological niche. This study examined daily activity patterns and behavioral responses of Maleo inhabiting a suboptimal upland forest habitat at approximately 600 m above sea level, characterized by low ambient temperature and high relative humidity. Behavioral observations were conducted using instantaneous scan sampling at 10-minute intervals from early morning to late afternoon, accompanied by concurrent microclimatic measurements and non-invasive pathogen surveillance at the wildlife–livestock interface. Results indicated that foraging behavior dominated the activity budget, often occurring in proximity to domestic chickens and anthropogenic food sources, while vigilance and rapid escape responses were observed in relation to human presence. Maleo activity was reduced during rainfall and more frequently recorded under clear or lightly clouded conditions, suggesting sensitivity to microclimatic variation. This study demonstrates that Maleos inhabiting an atypical upland forest environment exhibit flexible behavioral strategies that facilitate their short-term persistence under suboptimal ecological conditions. However, this behavioral plasticity entails critical trade-offs, notably increased exposure to human disturbance and elevated health risks, while ultimately failing to fulfill the species’ specialized reproductive requirements. Consequently, conservation efforts must prioritize the rigorous protection and restoration of natural coastal nesting habitats, complemented by ongoing behavioral monitoring and wildlife-livestock health surveillance. Ultimately, integrating behavioral ecology into conservation planning is essential for delineating the limits of species adaptability and ensuring the effective, long-term management of this threatened endemic bird

Keywords: behavioral ecology, behavioral plasticity, Maleo, non-typical habitat, microclimate